Apostolic Fathers—Where Is the Spirit of God?

Most of the uses of the prophe- words^{2They appear 74 times, in 66 verses, in 17 forms in the Apostolic Fathers. Barnabas alone has thirty of them, and most are related to the Israelite prophets found in the Hebrew Scriptures, testifying about Jesus as the Christ (life, death, and resurrection). Barnabas also classifies as prophetic literature that is currently considered pseudepigraphical or noncanonical, such as 4 Ezra (12.1) and Enoch. Their literary usage is similar to how the prophets of the Hebrew Bible, such as Isaiah and Daniel, are used as “Scriptures” (ē graphē), although it is notable that Barnabas does not introduce Enoch with the term prophet or its correlation (Barn. 4:3, 16:5, 6). Certain other references about Jesus as the Christ are taken from sources heretofore unknown to us. This data suggests that the spirit of prophecy in Barnabas was not, like other Christian writings, confined to what we considered inspired writings. All references to the Apostolic Fathers, both Greek and English translations, are taken from The Apostolic Fathers, ed., trans. Bart Ehrman, Loeb Classical Library, 24, 25 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003).} in the writings preserved immediately following New Testament times are found in Barnabas, ^{3This epistle is anonymous, but was soon ascribed to Paul’s companion Barnabas. It was highly regarded by Christians, resulting in its inclusion (with the Shepherd of Hermas) as part of the New Testament in one of its most important manuscripts, Codex Sinaiticus. This treatise was likely written between the 90s-120s in Alexandria, Egypt. Its main theme is to correctly interpret the Hebrew Scriptures, given their incorrect interpretation by the Jews. The author understands literally the condemnation of the Israelites, while providing an allegorical/symbolical meaning to their laws such as Sabbath, circumcision, sacrifices, and kosher. Its second section (chaps. 18-20) contains prescriptions, similar to the Didache, “probably originating as a Jewish set of ethical instructions later adopted by a Christian author and broadly disseminated early in the history of the church” (The Apostolic Fathers, 2:5). For more information, see 3-9.} the Didache, ^{4This is the earliest known Christian manual, from the end of the first century or the beginning of the second. It describes Christian rituals such as baptism and the Eucharist, “along with instructions involving itinerant Christian apostles and prophets in an age before the church hierarchy of bishop, presbyters, and deacons was firmly in place” (The Apostolic Fathers, 1:405). For more information, see 405-412.} and the Shepherd of Hermas. ^{5Based on its use in the second and third century, after the New Testament, this book was one of the most popular books of early Christians, containing a collection of “visions,” “commandments/mandates,” and “parables/similitudes” received by Hermas from an angel. This is critical in relation to our discussion of prophecy because it attests to the wide acceptance of divine visionary revelation by early Christians. From its usage in the second century, its author is believed to be from Rome, around the beginning of the second century. Its main message is a call for the church to repent from sins related to family relations, wealth, business dealings, and indecision toward God. For more information, see The Apostolic Fathers, 2:162-169.} Reflecting on their use in those documents enables describing the perception of early Christian writers regarding the spiritual gift of prophecy. Most often the spirit of prophecy is equivalent to the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament), which testify of Jesus as Messiah. This gift continues with the apostles, who also testified of Jesus the Christ from God, and remains within the postapostolic church through its current teachers/preachers.GOP 203.1

It is in the Epistle of Barnabas, one of the works now referred to as the works of the Apostolic Fathers, that we find most of the references to prophets. The first reference summarizes the core meaning of what it was to be a prophet at that time. “For through the prophets the Master has made known to us what has happened and what now is; and he has given us the first fruits of the taste of what is yet to be” (Barn. 1:7). The same is expressed by Ignatius in To the Philadelphians: “And we should also love the prophets, because of their proclamation [katengelkenai]” (Ign. Phld. 5:2). First, a prophet is one who speaks on behalf of God about Jesus—“what has happened and what now is”—therefore he teaches about truth. The primary characteristic of a prophet is to proclaim, which Ignatius clarifies using a synonym (katangellō) of the verb to (prophēteuō). A prophet, however, is not merely any conventional speaker, but one who declares the truth from God about Jesus.GOP 203.2

This hermeneutical focus in Jesus as Christ is central to the definition by the Apostolic Fathers of who constitutes a true prophet. ^{6This continues with the Church Fathers. See most recently Michael Graves, The Inspiration and Interpretation of Scripture: What the Early Church Can Teach Us (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 32, 55-60.} The Christological reading of the Hebrew Scriptures led the author of 1 Clement, for example, to identify Rahab as a prophet. “Because of her faith and hospitality, Rahab the harlot was saved. . . . She should hang a piece of scarlet from her house—making it clear that it is through the blood of the Lord that redemption will come to all who believe in hope in God. You see, loved ones, not only was faith found in the woman, but prophecy as well” (1 Clem. 12:1-8). Barnabas also saw Jesus as the purpose of prophecy. “Learn this! Because the prophets received his gracious gift, they prophesied looking ahead to him” (Barn. 5:5, 6). “In a similar way he makes another declaration about the cross in another prophet, who says, ‘When will these things be fulfilled?’ [4 Ezra 4:33] says the Lord, ‘When a tree falls and rises up, and when blood flows from a tree’ [4 Ezra 5:5]” (Barn. 12:1).GOP 204.1

Because of this Christocentric perspective, the Apostolic Fathers could claim the Hebrew Scriptures as their own, as if they were Christian Scriptures, and not Jewish. ^{7The Apostolic Fathers, 2:3.} Moreover, this Christological approach was to be the basis of testing prophetic legitimacy, for as we shall see, certain persons claimed to be prophets, teaching and behaving contrary to what the Apostolic Fathers esteemed to be that of Jesus. In the Didache we find the most extensive explanation from the early church as to how Christians should treat those who called themselves prophets (Did. 10:7-13:4; 15:1, 2). Because of its importance, the first larger section is quoted in full.GOP 204.2

But permit the prophets to give thanks (eucharistein) as often as they wish. And so, welcome anyone who comes and teaches you everything mentioned above. But if the teacher should himself turn away and teach something different, undermining these things, do not listen to him; but if his teaching brings righteousness and the knowledge of the Lord, welcome him as the Lord. But act towards the apostles and prophets as the Gospel decrees. Let every apostle that cometh to you be welcomed as the Lord. But he should not remain except one day; if he must, he may stay one more. But if he remains three days, he is a false prophet. When an apostle leaves he should take nothing except bread, until he arrives at his night’s lodging. If he asks for money, he is a false prophet. Do not test or condemn a prophet speaking in the Spirit. For every sin will be forgiven, but this sin will not be forgiven. Not everyone who speaks in the Spirit is a prophet, but only one who conducts himself like the Lord. Thus the false prophet and the prophet will both be known by their conduct. No prophet who orders a meal in the Spirit eats of it, if he does, he is a false prophet. Every prophet who teaches the truth but does not do what he himself teaches is a false prophet. You are not to condemn any prophet who has been approved and is true and who acts on behalf of the earthly mystery of the church, even if he does not teach others to do what he himself does, since he has his judgment with God. For even the ancient prophets behaved in this way. Do not listen to anyone who says in the Spirit, “Give me money,” (or something else). But if he tells you to give for others who are in need, let no one judge him. Everyone who comes in the name of the Lord should be welcomed. Then when you exercise your critical judgment, you will know him; for you understand what is true and what is false (Did. 10:7-12:1).GOP 204.3

According to this Christian manual, there were prophets in the end of the first century or the beginning of the second century. Here the role of the prophet, apostle, and teacher is seen as nearly one and the same, in speaking on behalf of God. These three spiritual gifts, as specified in 1 Corinthians 12:28, 29, were apparently combined in itinerant preachers of the time. This combination of gifts is basically what the Didache considered to be a prophet. Notice that in 11:3, 4 the author advises the church concerning the “apostles and prophets” [saying,] “Let every apostle” be received into the home. If he stays more than one day he should be considered a “false prophet” (11:5). However, when the “apostle leaves,” he should take only necessary food, because if he asks for more, he is a “false prophet” (11:6). They (apostles and prophets) are also considered teachers of truth (didaskōn tēn alētheian), speaking in the Spirit (11:8). The interchangeable uses of these spiritual gifts suggest that early in Christianity they were conflated (apostles/prophets/ teachers). ^{8For a similar assessment of these three gifts as “ad hoc formulations,” see Aune, 201.}GOP 205.1

Therefore, the first test of a prophet/apostle/teacher is conformity to the truth (11:1, 10) since the common function of these three spiritual gifts is proclaiming the word of God. Within the Didache, conformity to truth likely refers to the teachings of the Hebrew Bible received through the apostles (6:1). The second test of a true prophet is his behavior. Because false teachers can partially proclaim “truthful” messages, the church should be aware that “not everyone who speaks in the Spirit is a prophet,” and that only those who behave “like the Lord” (11:8) should be considered to be a true prophet and, consequently, be received as such. The author explains the likeness to Jesus as constituting humility, contrary to greediness. This test is repeated in 12:2-5, which suggests its importance in how to detect legitimate godly Christian teachers from wandering profiteers. ^{9See also Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 6:1. Interestingly, this is the only section in this document that uses the word “prophet,” referring here to the Hebrew Scriptures, which foretold the “coming of our Lord.” Immediately after the parallel mention of apostles and prophets, a warning is given to avoid “stumbling blocks, false brother, and those who carry the name of the Lord in hypocrisy, leading the empty-minded (kenous) astray” (6:3; italics supplied). This is similar to the description of false prophets in the Shepherd of Hermas, which follows. From an Adventist perspective, George Rice also identifies greed as a main characteristic of a false prophet, which is a perversion of the true gift of the Spirit, which produces selfless love. George Rice, “Spiritual Gifts,” in Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology, ed. Raoul Dederen, Commentary Reference Series, 12 (Hagerstown, Md.: Review and Herald®, 2000), 618.} Based on the aforementioned information, we deduce that, early in Christianity, many congregations considered certain itinerant preachers to be prophets.GOP 205.2

These apparent wandering figures of early Christianity ^{10See the relation between the Christian prophet and the holy man of antiquity in Peter Brown, Authority and the Sacred: Aspects of the Christianisation of the Roman World (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995).} are directly involved in the liturgy of the local church (10:7—offering thanks or the Eucharist), and also functioned as priests, deserving even to receive the first fruits of the congregation’s produce for their sustenance (13:3). This hints of what type of benefits this “profession” could offer to charlatans. Because of the possibility of false prophets intruding into the church ^{11According to the last chapter of the Didache (16), the appearance of false prophets would increase in the last days, indicating that Christ would return soon. These false prophets would perform miracles and deceive many Christians, anticipating the coming of the antichrist (the world deceiver—kosmoplanēs). This eschatological expectation, likely based on Matthew 24 and 2 Thessalonians 2, was a good reason to be suspicious of prophets.} and consuming the energy and vitality of Christian congregations, the role of charismatic figures had begun to be reserved for local church leaders as a safety measure. Similarly, in the last references to prophets in the Didache (15:1, 2) is a command that the local church should elect bishops and deacons (episkopous kai diakonous) who “would conduct (leitourgousi) the ministry of the prophets and teachers among” them, although this would take some time to become the norm. Meanwhile, in the first two centuries of Christianity, prophets remained uncontrolled by the local hierarchy.GOP 206.1

The Shepherd of Hermas supports this notion. In its Mandates, resembling the content of the Didache, local congregations are advised to abstain from evil spirits, but to trust divine prophets. Congregations could not readily identify these evil spirits because they proclaimed a certain degree of truth and likely behaved like true prophets (Herm. Mand. 11 [43]). Similar to the Didache, the character of these itinerant preachers determined their supernatural origin. “The one who has the spirit that comes from above is meek, gentle, and humble; he abstains from all evil and the vain desire of this age; he makes himself more lowly than all others; and he never gives an answer to anyone when asked, nor does he speak in private. The holy spirit does not speak when the person wants to speak, but when God wants him to speak” (Herm. Mand. 11:8 [43:8]). Whereas false teachers prophesy when motivated by gain from the local congregation, true prophets prophesy when God wants them to speak. False prophets were moved by evil desires in mixing truth with error to deceive double-minded and empty (Kevovq) Christians, speaking in secret and looking to be rewarded by Christians by asking for remuneration for their work and only prophesying when they were paid (11:1 [43:12, 13]).GOP 206.2

Because these false prophets met in secret and deceived church members to give them money that should have been used for local needs (see Didache 13:3), they needed to be challenged. Similarly, in Didache 15:1, the Shepherd of Hermas exhorted that it was the role of the local “gathering filled with upright men who have the divine spirit (synagōgēn plērē andrōn dikaiōn echontōn pneuma theotētos)” to distinguish and shun these malicious teachers (Herm. Mand. 11:9 [43:9]). This also reveals a transition to spirit-filled itinerant preachers who have a message to local communities from God in establishing divinely appointed teachers in local congregations.GOP 206.3

These local leaders would become the foundation stones of the church (cf. Eph. 2:20-22). The Shepherd of Hermas, in its similitudes, compared the church to a tower with a foundation composed of many rocks, identifying prophets, deacons (ministers), apostles, and teachers (Herm. Sim. 9. 15. 4 [92. 4]). As previously noted in the Didache, the role of the teacher/apostle/prophet was to proclaim a message from God, and was in the process of fusion as evidenced in the Martyrdom of Polycarp. The bishop of Smyrna of the second century is described in this document as an apostolic and prophetic teacher (didaskalos apostolikos kai prophetikos) (Mart. Pol. 16:2). The reason for his title is clearly stated, “for every word that came forth from his mouth was fulfilled and will be fulfilled” (16:2). His role as a foretelling figure (seer) is most clearly portrayed in a vision he received concerning his coming death. Twice this revelation is mentioned (5:2 and 12:3) for the vision “had to be fulfilled (plerothenai)” (12:3). Although the characteristic of a prophet is the foretelling of truth, in his last description, Polycarp is called an apostolic teacher. Therefore, by the second century we see the claim that the Spirit of God residing in the church through elected leaders who would teach the truth they received from a previous ecclesiastical authority. These were not only itinerant preachers (leaders of the church), who traveled throughout the Roman Empire proclaiming messages from God to local congregations, but were also teachers of the Scriptures, like Paul and Apollos.GOP 206.4