“E” Entries

Earthquakes, When the Earth Reels To and Fro.—There is something preternaturally terrible in the earthquake, when the earth, which we think the emblem of solidity, trembles under our feet, and geological convulsions, the most destructive agents of the past, threaten us in the present. The sensation is so beyond experience, and the feeling of powerlessness so overwhelming, that, amid the crash, man looks hopelessly around, and can simply bow the head in silent, motionless despair, as if expecting every moment to be buried in the ruins. With the cries and groans of the terrified people in the houses and in the streets, are heard the dull sounds of falling buildings, and appalling subterranean rumblings, and the thoughts of all are turned, where they always are instinctively in times of unexpected, inexplicable disaster, Godward. When the earth is thus moved by invisible hands, each moment seems a year, and, as when death appears suddenly imminent, the events of a lifetime pass in an instant before the eyes of the soul. It is a novel and a terrifying sight to behold houses reel like a drunken man, as the earth waves reach them; it is more like the disturbed dreams of fever, or the scenic display of the drama, than any conception of reality.—“Volcanoes and Earthquakes,” Samuel Kneeland, A. M., M. D., p. 207. Boston: D. Lothrop Company, 1888.SBBS 144.6

Earthquakes, The Lisbon Earthquake, of 1755.—Among the earth movements which in historic times have affected the kingdom of Portugal, that of Nov. 1, 1755, takes first rank; as it does also, in some respects, among all recorded earthquakes. The first shocks of this earthquake came without other warning than a deep sound of rumbling thunder, which appeared to proceed from beneath the ground, and it was immediately followed by a quaking which threw down almost the entire city. In six minutes sixty thousand persons perished.—“Earthquakes,” William Herbert Hobbs, pp. 142, 143. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1907.SBBS 145.1

The Lisbon earthquake of Nov. 1, 1755, appears to have put both the theologians and philosophers on the defensive.... At twenty minutes to ten that morning, Lisbon was firm and magnificent, on one of the most picturesque and commanding sites in the world,-a city of superb approach, placed precisely where every circumstance had concurred to say to the founders, Build here! In six minutes the city was in ruins.... Half the world felt the convulsion.... For many weeks, as we see in the letters and memoirs of that time, people in distant parts of Europe went to bed in alarm, relieved in the morning to find that they had escaped the fate of Lisbon one night more.—“Life of Voltaire,” James Parton, (2 vol. ed.) Vol. II, pp. 208, 209. New York: Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1909.SBBS 145.2

Earthquakes, One Effect of Lisbon Quake, 1755.—The earthquake had made all men thoughtful. They mistrusted their love of the drama, and filled the churches instead.—“Life of Voltaire,” S. G. Tallentyre, p. 319. London, 1903.SBBS 145.3

The effects of the earthquake of the first of November, 1755, were distributed over very nearly four millions of square English miles of the earth’s surface; a most astonishing space! and greatly surpassing anything of this kind ever recorded in history.—“The History and Philosophy of Earthquakes,” J. Nourse, p. 334. London, 1757.SBBS 145.4

Earthquakes, Lisbon Earthquake Recognized as Sign of End.—SBBS 145.5

Who can with curious eyes this globe survey,
And not behold it tottering with decay?
All things created, God’s designs fulfil,
And natural causes work his destined will.
And that eternal Word, which cannot lie,
To mortals hath revealed in prophecy
That in these latter days such signs should come,
Preludes and prologues to the general doom.
But not the Son of man can tell that day;
Then, lest it find you sleeping, watch and pray.SBBS 145.6

-“Poem on the Lisbon Earthquake,” John Biddolf. London, 1755.SBBS 145.7

Earthquakes, Lisbon Earthquake Described by Eyewitness.—Almost all the palaces and large churches were rent down, or part fallen, and scarce one house of this vast city is left habitable. Everybody that was not crushed to death ran out into the large places, and those near the river ran down to save themselves by boats, or any other floating convenience, running, crying, and calling to the ships for assistance; but whilst the multitude were gathered near the riverside, the water rose to such a height that it overflowed the lower part of the city, which so terrified the miserable and already dismayed inhabitants, who ran to and fro with dreadful cries, which we heard plainly on board, that it made them believe the dissolution of the world was at hand, every one falling on his knees and entreating the Almighty for his assistance.... By two o’clock the ship’s boats began to ply, and took multitudes on board.... The fear, the sorrow, the cries and lamentations of the poor inhabitants are inexpressible; every one begging pardon, and embracing each other, crying, Forgive me, friend, brother, sister! Oh! what will become of us! neither water nor land will protect us, and the third element, fire, seems now to threaten our total destruction! as in effect it happened. The conflagration lasted a whole week.—Letter of ship captain to ship’s owners, in “Historical Account of Earthquakes,” Thomas Hunter, pp. 72-74. Liverpool, 1756.SBBS 145.8

Note.—The following table of earthquakes is gathered from the reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The list is of what are denominated “destructive earthquakes” only, as stated by the late Mr. John Milne, compiler of the statistics from which the subjoined table is made up:SBBS 146.1

“Small earthquakes have been excluded, while the number of large earthquakes both for ancient and modern times, has been extended. As an illustration of exclusion, I may mention that between 1800 and 1808, which are years taken at random, I find in Mallet’s catalogue 407 entries. Only 37 of these, which were accompanied by structural damage, have been retained.”SBBS 146.2

Mr. Milne also states that recent researches “indicate that thirty thousand earthquakes may occur annually.”SBBS 146.3

Century	No.
First	15
Second	11
Third	18
Fourth	14
Fifth	15
Sixth	13
Seventh	17
Eighth	35
Ninth	59
Tenth	32
Eleventh	53
Twelfth	84
Thirteenth	115
Fourteenth	137
Fifteenth	174
Sixteenth	253
Century	No.
Seventeenth	378
Eighteenth	640
Nineteenth
First Decade	80
Second Decade	87
Third Decade	132
Fourth Decade	106
Fifth Decade	185
Sixth Decade	313
Seventh Decade	339
Eighth Decade	297
Ninth Decade	339
Tenth Decade	241
Twentieth
First Decade	86

The distribution of more recent earthquakes is illustrated by the report for the first decade of the twentieth century, which is as follows (Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1911, p. 55):SBBS 146.4

Alaska	2
Algeria	1
Asia, Central	7
Asia Minor	2
Baluchistan	1
Bolivia	1
California	2
Chile	4
China	3
Colombia	1
Costa Rica	2
Crete	1
East Indies	6
Formosa	5
France	1
Greece	3
Guam	2
Guatemala	1
India	2
Italy	3
Japan	4
Java	1
Mexico	5
New Zealand	1
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama	1
Persia	3
Peru	1
Philippines	9
Samos	1
Siberia, East	3
Spain	2
Turkey in Europe	3
West Indies	2
-Eds.

Earthquakes.—See Jerusalem, 260.SBBS 146.5

Easter.—The English word comes from the AS Eastre or Estera, a Teutonic goddess to whom sacrifice was offered in April, so the name was transferred to the paschal feast. The word does not properly occur in Scripture, although A. V. has it in Acts 12:4 where it stands for Passover, as it is rightly rendered in R. V. [also in the A. R. V.]. There is no trace of Easter celebration in the New Testament, though some would see an intimation of it in 1 Corinthians 5:7. The Jewish Christians in the early church continued to celebrate the Passover, regarding Christ as the true paschal lamb, and this naturally passed over into a commemoration of the death and resurrection of our Lord, or an Easter feast. This was preceded by a fast, which was considered by one party as ending at the hour of the crucifixion, i. e., at 3 o’clock on Friday, by another as continuing until the hour of the resurrection before dawn on Easter morning. Differences arose as to the time of the Easter celebration, the Jewish Christians naturally fixing it at the time of the Passover feast which was regulated by the paschal moon. According to this reckoning it began on the evening of the 14th day of the moon of the month of Nisan without regard to the day of the week, while the Gentile Christians identified it with the first day of the week, i. e., the Sunday of the resurrection, irrespective of the day of the month.—The International Standard Bible Encyclopadia, James Orr, M. A., D. D., editor, Vol. II, art. “Easter,” p. 889. Chicago: The Howard-Severance Company, 1915.SBBS 147.1

The Easter Day indeed was always kept by St. John on the 14th day of the lunar month, whatever the day of the week. So Irenaus, quoted by Eusebius (H. E. v. 24), informs us. For he says that Polycarp could not be persuaded by Anicetus, the Roman bishop, not to keep it on that day, when not Sunday, “because he had always so kept it with John the disciple of the Lord, and other of the apostles.”-“Hora Apocalyptica,” Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, p. 71, Note 4. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847.SBBS 147.2

The occurrence of this word in the A. V. of Acts 12:4, is chiefly noticeable as an example of the want of consistency in the translators. In the earlier English versions Easter had been frequently used as the translation of pascha ([Greek word]). At the last revision [of the A. V.] “Passover” was substituted in all passages but this.—A Dictionary of the Bible, edited by William Smith, LL. D., p. 156. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company.SBBS 147.3

Easter.—See Papacy.SBBS 147.4

Eastern Question, Modern Meaning of.—In its strict and narrow sense, the Eastern Question is the question. What is to be done with the southeast of Europe and the contiguous portion of Asia? ... From the point of view of European politics, the Eastern Question has come to include the complications arising out of the possession by the Turks of the east of Europe and the possibility of Russian predominance in the Agean Sea.—“The Crime of Christendom,” Daniel Seelye Gregory, pp. 8, 9.SBBS 147.5

The Balkan or Near Eastern Question has been one of the most complicated political problems of the world’s history for half a century.... For four centuries and a half, or ever since the conquering Turk crossed the Bosporus and took Constantinople, the grim contest has been on to dislodge him by war and diplomacy.—American Review of Reviews, November, 1912.SBBS 147.6

“The Eastern Question” is one which the statesmen of Europe will probably wrangle over until the millennium.... When told that his once ally and sworn friend, the tsar Alexander of Russia, desired to gain it [Constantinople], Napoleon the Great excitedly sprang to his feet, saying, “Constantinople! Never-it is the empire of the world.”-“Decisive Battles of the World,” Charles King, Brigadier-General, p. 243, 1895.SBBS 148.1

Eastern Question, An Ancient Question.—Some countries seem destined from their origin to become the battlefields of the contending nations.... The nations around are eager for the possession of a country thus situated.... From remote antiquity Syria was in the condition just described.... By its position it formed a kind of meeting place, where most of the military nations of the ancient world were bound sooner or later to come violently into collision.—“Struggle of the Nations,” Sir Gaston Maspero, chap. 1, pp. 3, 4.SBBS 148.2

The Eastern Question, which began with Constantine and Theodosius, stretches through the centuries. It is ever old and ever new, like a figure in mythology.... The interests at stake are so important and complicated that Europe and Asia, and even America, cannot stand by as unconcerned spectators of the struggle which recurs century after century for the possession of the Bosporus, the Hellespont, and the Agean Sea. The East has been the goal of every ambition of the Christian and barbarian powers alike.—M. R. Ivanovitch, on “The Future of the Balkans,” in Fortnightly Review (London), June, 1909.SBBS 148.3

Eastern Question, Revolutionary France and Egypt in Conflict.—Bonaparte’s expedition, consisting of forty thousand land troops and ten thousand seamen, sailed from Toulon for Egypt on the nineteenth of May, 1798.—“Library of Universal History,” Vol. VIII, p. 2637.SBBS 148.4

In spite of the desperate valor displayed by the Mamelukes led by Murad Bey, the French gained a complete victory (July 21). This battle, called the Battle of the Pyramids, overthrew the government of the Mamelukes, and opened Cairo to the French, who entered it the following day.—“History of Modern Europe,” Dryer and Hassell, Vol. V, chap. 60, pp. 276, 277.*SBBS 148.5

The Porte [government of Turkey] solemnly declared war against France, Sept. 4, 1798, and coalesced with Russia and England. The sultan ordered the formation of an army for the conquest of Egypt. This event rendered the situation of the French extremely critical.—“History of the Egyptian Revolution,” A. A. Paton, Vol. I, p. 98.*SBBS 148.6

Eastern Question, Napoleon’s Aim—Constantinople and World Dominion.—If I succeed I shall find in the town [Acre] the pasha’s treasure, and arms for 300,000 men. I stir up and arm all Syria.... I march on Damascus and Aleppo; as I advance in the country my army will increase with the discontented.... I reach Constantinople with armed masses. I overthrow the Turkish Empire; I found in the East a new and grand empire, which fixes my place with posterity.—Napoleon, before Acre; cited in “The Modern Régime,” Hippolyte Adolphe Taine, D. C. L., book 1, chap. 1 (Vol. I, p. 35). New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1890.SBBS 148.7

Eastern Question, Turkey’s Whirlwind Attack (1799) at Mt. Tabor.—Twelve thousand horsemen, decorated with the most gorgeous trappings of military show, and mounted on the fleetest Arabian chargers, were prancing and curvetting in all directions. A loud and exultant shout of vengeance and joy, rising like the roar of the ocean, burst from the Turkish ranks as soon as they perceived their victims enter the plain.... The whole cavalcade of horsemen, with gleaming sabers and hideous yells, and like the sweep of the wind, came rushing down upon them. Every man in the French squares knew that his life depended upon his immobility, and each one stood, shoulder to shoulder with his comrades, like a rock....SBBS 148.8

The victory was complete. The Turkish army was not merely conquered-it was destroyed.... The whole majestic array, assembled for the invasion of Egypt, and who had boasted that they were “innumerable as the sands of the sea, or the stars of heaven,” had disappeared to be seen no more.—“The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte,” John S. C. Abbott, Vol. I, chap. 12, pp. 218-220.SBBS 149.1

Note.—Napoleon returned from this victory to the siege of Acre, where he was repulsed again and again.—Eds.SBBS 149.2

Eastern Question, “Many Ships” and Men Turn Napoleon’s Career at Acre (1799).—On the evening of the 7th May, a few sails were seen from the towers of Acre, on the furthest verge of the horizon. All eyes were instantly turned in that direction, and the besiegers [French] and besieged equally flattered themselves that succor was at hand. The English cruisers in the bay hastily, and in doubt, stood out to reconnoiter this unknown fleet; but the hearts of the French sank within them when they beheld the two squadrons unite, and, the Ottoman crescent joined to the English pennant, approach the roads of Acre. Soon after a fleet of thirty sail [Turkish] entered the bay, with seven thousand men, and abundance of artillery and ammunition.—“History of Europe,” Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 26, par. 90, Vol. IV, p. 207, 9th edition. Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1854.SBBS 149.3

Eastern Question, a Turning Point in History.—Napoleon was not yet sufficiently subdued by misfortune [at Acre] to order a retreat. “The fate of the East,” said he, “is in yonder fort.” ... In vain other columns, and even the Guides of Napoleon, his last reserve, advanced to the attack; they were all repulsed with dreadful loss.... Meanwhile the baggage, sick, and field artillery were silently defiling to the rear, the heavy cannon were buried in the sand, and on the 20th May, Napoleon, for the first time in his life, ordered a retreat.—Id., pars. 92, 93, p. 208.SBBS 149.4

Many times during the deadly delays of this fatal siege, in which he experienced his first check, he was heard to inveigh against “this miserable little hole which came between him and his destiny.” And many times later, when dwelling on the vicissitudes of his past life, and the different chances which had been open to him, he repeated “that if Saint Jean d’Acre had fallen, he would have changed the face of the world, and been emperor of the East.” And he generally added, that it was a grain of sand that had undone all his projects.—“The History of Napoleon the First,” Pierre Lanfrey, Vol. I, p. 296. London: Macmillan & Co., 1886.SBBS 149.5

Eastern Question, Egypt and Its Treasures Not Escaping.—Mohammed Ali [the sultan’s pasha of Egypt] not only ruled but possessed Egypt; for in 1808-10 he successfully accomplished a repetition of the tremendous acts of spoliation for which Suleiman II, son of the first Ottoman conqueror, had given him a precedent. By one means or another, in great measure by the deliberate confiscation and suppression of title deeds, he possessed himself of almost the whole of the land in Egypt, and declared that henceforth he was the sole owner of the soil, and all rights of possession or tenancy must be held from him. From every class in every town and province of Egypt came a passionate outcry against this wholesale robbery, but Mohammed Ali, with his terrible army of Arnouts at his back, stood firm.—“The Story of the Church of Egypt,” E. L. Butcher, Vol. II, p. 363. London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1897.SBBS 149.6

Eastern Question, Seventeenth Century Begins Turkish Decline.—For a hundred and fifty years after the conquest of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire remained in the fulness of power and prosperity, and the population, both Mohammedan and Christian, steadily increased.... Civil dissensions rarely disturbed the peace of the provinces; the laboring classes, both in the agricultural districts and the towns, were industrious and prosperous; manufactures flourished; the trade of the empire, both foreign and domestic, was vast and lucrative.... But with the seventeenth century began the decline of the Ottoman power.—“Turkey,” Edson L. Clark, pp. 148, 149. New York: Peter Fenelon Collier & Son, 1900.SBBS 150.1

Eastern Question, Greece Detached.—In July, 1827, England, France, and Russia signed the Treaty of London, by which they bound themselves to compel the Turk, by force, if it should be needful, to acknowledge the freedom of Greece.—“The Ottoman Power in Europe,” E. A. Freeman, D. C. L., LL. D., p. 183. London: Macmillan & Co., 1877.SBBS 150.2

On May 7, 1832, more than a decade after the outbreak of the Greek revolt, the treaty was finally signed which added a new Christian kingdom to the states’ system of Europe.—“Modern Europe,” 1815-99, W. Allison Phillips, M. A., p. 167, 2nd edition. London: Rivingtons, 1902.SBBS 150.3

Eastern Question, The Balkan States Carved Out.—The Porte bowed to the inevitable [with the Russian army in the Balkans] and on Sept. 14, 1829, signed with Russia the treaty of Adrianople. True to his undertaking, the tsar stipulated for no territorial increase in Europe; but the Danubian principalities were erected into practically independent states....SBBS 150.4

The news of the peace of Adrianople ... produced something like a panic among the powers. Wellington declared that the Turkish power in Europe no longer existed, and that, this being so, it was absurd to talk of bolstering it up. In any case, since the Russian occupation of the principalities made Turkey to all intents and purposes a province of Russia, the integrity of the Ottoman Empire was no longer of supreme importance to England.—Id., pp. 165, 166.SBBS 150.5

Note.—Out of this, in the course of years, particularly between 1878 and 1885, came the independent Balkan States, carved from Turkish territory.—Eds.SBBS 150.6

Eastern Question, Opening Passage of a Stirring Decade of Diplomacy.—On July 8, 1833, was signed the famous treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, which, under the form of an offensive and defensive alliance between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, virtually, in the words of Count Nesselrode himself, legalized for the future the armed intervention of Russia in Turkish affairs.... In France and England the news of the conclusion of this treaty roused immense excitement. Palmerston declared that it placed Turkey under Russian vassalage, and that, as far as England was concerned, it had no existence.—Id., p. 216.SBBS 150.7

Eastern Question, Constantinople Threatened in 1839.—On June 24 [1839] Ibrahim [the general of Mehemet Ali, the Sultan’s rebellious governor of Egypt] met the Ottoman army at Nessib [Syria] and routed it. Once more the road to Constantinople lay open to him. Disaster followed disaster, heralding, as it seemed, the downfall of the Turkish rule. On June 30 the old Sultan Mahmoud died, leaving the throne to Abd-ul-Medjid, a lad of sixteen. And, finally, as though to crown the edifice of ruin, Achmet Pasha, the Ottoman admiral, sailed into the harbor of Alexandria, and handed over his fleet to Mehemet Ali.SBBS 150.8

Obviously, if the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi were to be more than “an interesting historical relic,” the time had come for its application. In common alarm, the majority of the powers, disunited on most points, combined to forestall any isolated action on the part of Russia, and by their ambassadors at Constantinople agreed to place the young sultan under the protection of Europe. At the same time they warned Mehemet Ali that the matter was now not for him, but for Europe, to decide. But at this point their agreement ceased. France now openly championed Mehemet Ali, in whom she looked to find a valuable ally against the sea power of England in the Mediterranean. She proposed that the pasha of Egypt should be left in the enjoyment of his conquests, and that France and England should come to an agreement as to common action in the event of the Russians’ meeting Ibrahim on the Bosporus. The alliance, in fact, was to be directed, not against Egypt, but against Russia.—Id., pp. 225, 226.SBBS 151.1

Eastern Question, When News of Defeat Reached Constantinople.—The divan, stricken with consternation, was about to yield unconditionally to Mehemet’s demand for the hereditary possession of all his dominions, when a note was received from the powers. This note, which bears date of July 27, 1839, informed the Porte that the five great powers-Austria, England, France, Prussia, and Russia-had agreed to act in concert on the Eastern Question, and requested the Turkish government not to come to any definite conclusion without their advice. The Porte replied that it would await the action of Europe, and gratefully accepted the proffered mediation.—“The Eastern Question,” S. P. H. Duggan, Ph. D., p. 87. New York: Columbia University Press, 1902.SBBS 151.2

Eastern Question, Note of Five Powers, July 27, 1839.—The undersigned have this morning received instructions from their respective governments, in virtue of which they have the honor to inform the Sublime Porte, that agreement between the five powers upon the Eastern Question is insured, and to invite the Porte to suspend any final determination without their concurrence, awaiting the result of the interest which those powers feel for the Porte.—[Signed] Baron Roussin, Count de Koenigsmarck, Baron de Sturmer, Ponsonby, A. Boutenoff. [Dated] Constantinople, July 27, 1839.—“Foreign Affairs of Great Britain, Administered by Palmerston,” published anonymously [Wm. Cargill known to be the author], p. 158. 1841.SBBS 151.3

Eastern Question, Convention of July 15, 1840.—The discovery of what seemed an underhand intrigue on the part of France produced upon the powers exactly the effect that Thiers had foreseen and deprecated.... Their countermove was to sign at London on the 15th of July, without the concurrence of France, a convention with the Porte for the settlement of the affairs of the Levant. By this instrument it was agreed that the terms to be offered to Mehemet Ali having been concerted with the Porte, the signatory powers would unite their forces in order to compel the pasha to accept the settlement. As to the terms to be offered, it was arranged that, in the event of Mehemet Ali yielding within ten days, he should receive the hereditary pashalik of Egypt and the administration for life of southern Syria, with the title of Pasha of Acre and the possession of the fortress of St. Jean d’Acre. At the end of ten days, should he remain obdurate, the offer of Syria and Acre would be withdrawn; and if at the end of another ten days he was still defiant, the sultan would hold himself at liberty to withdraw the whole offer and to take such measures as his own interests and the counsels of his allies might suggest to him.—Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XVIII, art. “Mehemet Ali,” p. 81, 11th edition.SBBS 151.4

Eastern Question, as Related to Asia Minor and the Approaches to the Far East.—The question of Asiatic Turkey may convulse the world in a series of devastating wars unless it be solved together with the other great questions which will come up for settlement at the Peace Congress.SBBS 152.1

Innumerable great and small problems will have to be considered at the Peace. Not only the map of Europe, but that of the world, will have to be redrawn. The coming settlement will be greater, and may be far more difficult, than that made at Vienna a hundred years ago....SBBS 152.2

The question of Asiatic Turkey is undoubtedly a far more difficult question than that of Constantinople.... The importance and value of Asiatic Turkey ... can scarcely be overexaggerated, for it occupies undoubtedly the most important strategical position in the world. It forms the nucleus and center of the Old World. It separates, and at the same time connects, Europe, Asia, and Africa, three continents which are inhabited by approximately nine tenths of the human race....SBBS 152.3

A powerful Asiatic Turkey can obviously dominate not only the Bosporus, the Dardanelles, and the Suez Canal, but the very narrow entrance of the Red Sea near Aden, and that of the Persian Gulf near Muscat as well. It must not be forgotten that only a comparatively short distance, a stretch of country under the nominal rule of weak and decadent Persia, separates Asiatic Turkey from the Indian frontier. It is clear that Asiatic Turkey, lying in the center of the Old World, is at the same time a natural fortress of the greatest defensive strength and an ideal base for a surprise attack upon southern Russia, Constantinople, the Agean Islands, Greece, the Suez Canal, Egypt, Persia, Afghanistan, and India.—J. Ellis Barker, in the Nineteenth Century and After, June, 1916.SBBS 152.4

Eastern Question, Filling the Vacuum.—The Near Eastern Question may be defined as the problem of filling up the vacuum created by the gradual disappearance of the Turkish Empire from Europe.—“The Eastern Question,” Dr. J. A. Ransome Marriott, p. 2.SBBS 152.5

Eastern Question, Not One Question, but Many.—In the sense in which the term is generally used, it means the problem or group of problems that result from the occupation of Constantinople and the Balkan Peninsula by the Turks.—“The Diplomatic Background of the War,” Prof. Charles Seymour, of Yale, p. 195.SBBS 152.6

Eastern Question, Negotiations with Egypt.—The news of the conclusion of the treaty of July had reached Constantinople, and despite some dissensions in the interior of the divan, and some objections by his mother, the sultana Valide, the sultan, always under the influence of Redschid Pasha, hastened to accept it, and forwarded the ratification to London, instructing Rifat Bey to carry tó Alexandria the successive summonses, which, in the terms of the treaty, the Porte was to address to the pasha. Rifat Bey arrived at Alexandria on the 11th of August; but found no Mehemet Ali there. He had been for some days on a tour in lower Egypt, under the pretext of visiting the canals of the Nile, but in reality to gain time, and prepare his means of defense. Having returned to Alexandria on the 14th, he received Rifat Bey on the 16th, and without entering into discussion with him-scarcely giving him time to speak-he rejected the first summons prescribed by the treaty. On the following day (the 17th), the consuls of the four subscribing powers asked an audience, and remonstrated with him on his refusal. He repulsed them sharply, cut short Colonel Hodges, the English consul, and persevered in his remonstrance, saying, “I shall only yield to the saber what I have won by the saber.”-“The Life and Times of Viscount Palmerston,” James Ewing Richie, Division II, p. 529. The London Printing and Publishing Company, 1866.SBBS 152.7

Eastern Question, Rifat Bey’s First Interview with Mehemet Ali.—Constantinople, Aug. 27, 1840: By the French steamer of the 24th [of August], we have advices from Egypt to the 16th, but they show no alteration in the resolution of the pasha. Confiding in the valor of his Arab army, and in the strength of the fortifications which defended his capital, he seems determined to abide by the last alternative; and as recourse to this is, therefore, now inevitable, all hope may be considered at an end of a termination of the affair without bloodshed. Immediately on the arrival of the Cyclops steamer with the news of the convention with the four powers, Mehemet Ali, it is stated, had quitted Alexandria to make a short tour through lower Egypt: the object of his absenting himself at such a moment being partly to avoid conferences with the European consuls, but principally to endeavor by his own presence to rouse the fanaticism of the Bedouin tribes, and facilitate the raising of his new levies. During the interval of this absence, the Turkish government steamer, which had reached Alexandria on the 11th, with the envoy, Rifat Bey, on board, had been by his orders placed in quarantine, and she was not released from it till the 16th....SBBS 153.1

On the very day on which he had been admitted to pratique [certificate of permission to land passenger and crew], the abovenamed functionary had had an audience of the pasha, and had communicated to him the commands of the sultan with respect to the evacuation of the Syrian provinces, appointing another audience for the following day, when, in the presence of the consuls of the European powers, he would receive from him his definitive answer, and inform him of the alternative of his refusing to obey, giving him the ten days which have been allotted him by the convention to decide on the course he shall think fit to adopt.—London Morning Chronicle, Sept. 18, 1840.SBBS 153.2

Eastern Question, The Official Record of Negotiations in Egypt.SBBS 153.3

Colonel Hodges to Viscount PonsonbySBBS 153.4

[Extract] Alexandria, August 16, 1840.SBBS 153.5

On the 11th of August, Rifat Bey reached this port, and was subject to six days’ quarantine, which expire this morning. He has been lodged very commodiously in the pasha’s sea baths. Both in conjunction with my colleagues, and alone, I have had with his Excellency several protracted and confidential interviews. We are all gratified by the very judicious choice of the Sublime Porte, whose envoy displays those rare qualities which render him perfectly equal to the difficult mission with which he is intrusted.—“Parliamentary Papers,” Session 1841, Vol. XXIX, part 2, p. 148.SBBS 153.6

Note.—Colonel Hodges was British consul-general in Egypt; Lord Ponsonby, the British ambassador at Constantinople.—Eds.SBBS 153.7

Colonel Hodges to Viscount PonsonbySBBS 154.1

[Extract] Alexandria, August 16, 1840.SBBS 154.2

On the arrival of Rifat Bey in Alexandria, Mehemet Ali was absent from thence on a tour of the Delta.SBBS 154.3

The Pasha returned to this city on the afternoon of the 14th instant. The same evening he was visited by the French Consul-General.SBBS 154.4

Early this morning, Rifat Bey was liberated from quarantine, and at half past eight o’clock, a. m., he had his first audience with the Pasha. This was private, as had been arranged between Rifat Bey and the consuls-general of the four powers.SBBS 154.5

It appears that the reception of the sultan’s envoy was anything but gracious or favorable; but the results of that interview are fully related by Rifat Bey himself, in minutes which I have the honor to inclose.SBBS 154.6

Discouraged by want of his success, Rifat Bey at first proposed an immediate return to Constantinople; but in conjunction with my colleagues, I represented to him the propriety of awaiting the expiration of the first and second periods of ten days specified in the Convention, and at the termination of which it will be proper to make new and formal summonses of compliance. With these suggestions Rifat Bey has fully concurred, and we have exerted our joint efforts to encourage the envoy, and to console him for his recent check.—Id., p. 149.SBBS 154.7

Eastern Question, Terms of Powers Rejected and Force Employed.—Mehemet Ali, trusting in the encouraging attitude of France, and in the effectiveness of Ibrahim’s army, had defied the coalition. But French help never went beyond stimulating phrases, and the Egyptian military power collapsed with surprising rapidity....SBBS 154.8

Scarcely had the combined British, Austrian, and Turkish fleet appeared off Beirout on August 11, when the Syrian population rose as one man in revolt against the tyranny of that same Ibrahim who, six years before, had been welcomed as a liberator. Beirout fell on October 3; and Ibrahim, cut off amidst a hostile people, began a hurried retreat southwards. On November 2 the Allies captured Acre, and Mehemet Ali ordered the evacuation of Syria. From Acre, Admiral Napier sailed straight to Alexandria, and threatened to bombard it if the pasha did not come to terms. On November 25 was signed a Convention by which Mehemet Ali resigned all claims to Syria, and agreed to restore the Ottoman fleet, the powers on their part undertaking to use their influence with the Porte to procure for himself and his heirs the pashalik of Egypt. The Turco-Egyptian Question was settled.—“Modern Europe,” 1815-99, W. Alison Phillips, M. A., pp. 229, 230. London: Rivingtons, 1902.SBBS 154.9

Eastern Question, The Step of 1841.—Mohammed Ali, by the treaty of [July 13,] 1841, was confined to his Egyptian possessions, under the suzerainty of the sultan, the integrity and independence of whose empire was now placed formally under the guarantee of the great powers. The treaty of 1841 was a new and vital departure: Turkey was for the first time placed in a state of tutelage.—“The Story of Turkey,” Stanley Lane-Poole, p. 350. London and New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1888.SBBS 154.10

The integrity and independence of that state was declared by the five powers to be of essential importance to the world, and the Ottoman Empire was formally taken under the protection of all Europe....SBBS 154.11

Before this treaty was agreed to, whatever step Russia might take in the East was a mere question of policy and of convenience; she could now make no attempt on the independence of the Porte without breaking her plighted faith, and giving all the other four powers the right, which would become a duty, to oppose her by force of arms.—“Thirty Years of Foreign Policy,” Thomas MacKnight, p. 280. London, 1855.SBBS 155.1

Eastern Question, Decline of Turkish Power Foreseen in Prophecy.—This prediction [of Daniel 11:44] has been in part already fulfilled and is still fulfilling, by the apprehensions the Turks have long had of a war with the Persians in the East; and of the progress of the Muscovite there also, who is properly on the north. It also deserves to be here noted that these Turks themselves have a traditionary prophecy, greatly believed among them, that they are the last to be destroyed by a northern nation.—“Literal Accomplishment of Scripture Prophecies,” Wm. Whiston, M. A., p. 47. London, 1724. (Author s copy; corrections marked by author with pen. This quotation follows interlining. British Museum Library.)SBBS 155.2

This part of the prophecy [Daniel 11:44] is allowed to be yet unfulfilled; and what is portended, the course of prophetic events will show.... But if the Turkish power be understood, as in the preceding verses, it may mean that the Persians on the east, and the Russians on the north, will at some time greatly embarrass the Ottoman government. And how completely has this been fulfilled; first, by the total destruction of the Egyptian fleet, by the combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, in the bay of Navarino; and, secondly, by the total overthrow of the Turkish army by the Russians, in the years 1828 and 1829, when the sultan was obliged to accept any conditions that the emperor of Russia was pleased to give! (N. B.—The former part of this note was written for the first edition of this work, printed in 1825.)-Commentary, Adam Clarke, on Daniel 11:44; Vol. IV, p. 618. New York: Phillips & Hunt.SBBS 155.3

Eastern Question, Turkey “Helped” to Stand.—[In his Mansion House speech, Nov. 9, 1895, Lord Salisbury, responding to a widespread demand for the overthrow of the Turkish power, said:] Turkey is in the remarkable condition that it has now stood for half a century, mainly because the great powers have resolved that for the peace of Christendom it is necessary that the Ottoman Empire should stand. They came to that conclusion nearly half a century ago. I do not think they have altered it now. The danger, if the Ottoman Empire fell, would not merely be the danger that would threaten the territories of which that empire consists; it would be the danger that the fire there lit should spread to other nations, and should involve all that is most powerful and civilized in Europe in a dangerous and calamitous contest.—“The Third Salisbury Administration, 1895-1900,” H. Whates, book 1, chap. 2, p. 20. Westminster: Vacher & Sons.SBBS 155.4

It is not too much to say that England has twice saved Turkey from complete subjection since 1853. It is largely-mainly-due to our action that she now exists at all as an independent power. On both these occasions we dragged the powers of Europe along with us in maintaining the Ottoman government.—Duke of Argyle (1895), in “The Turkish-Armenian Question,” p. 17.*SBBS 155.5

Eastern Question, Constantinople Saved from Russians in 1878.—With the arrival of the Russian army came the English fleet, which had nominally forced the passage of the Dardanelles in defiance of treaties, and hoped to prevent the occupation of Constantinople by the Russians. It was not war, but a threat of war. So far as the Turks were concerned there was nothing to prevent the Russians entering the city without firing a shot. General Grant, who was here a little later, was in St. Petersburg at this time, and he told this story on the authority of a high official there: “When the Grand Duke arrived at San Stefano, he sent many telegrams to the czar, among others this, ‘We are in sight of St. Sophia. There are no troops between us and the city. Shall I enter and take possession?’ All the other telegrams were answered at once. This one was not, in the full belief that the Grand Duke would understand that he was to take the responsibility himself and occupy the city. To the great disappointment of the czar, he did not.” General Grant added that this seemed to him the greatest mistake the Russians had made.—“Fifty Years in Constantinople,” George Washburn, D. D., p. 131. Boston: Houghton Mifflin & Co.SBBS 155.6

Eastern Question, Turkey’s Disintegration.—The disintegration once started spread rapidly, until under Abdul Hamid, Thessaly was ceded to Greece; a strip of eastern Avatolia, including Batum and Kars, to Russia; and Tunis to France. Roumania, Servia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria became independent; Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed to Austria, and Egypt and Cyprus passed under the control of Great Britain.... Tripoli, the last of the African possessions of Turkey, has been wrested from Turkey by Italy. Macedonia, Epirus, Albania, and the greater part of Thrace have become the spoils of the Balkan war, and, of all their vast possessions in Europe, the Turks retain only Constantinople and a fragment of Thrace.SBBS 156.1

This is a story of defeat and disaster almost unexampled, and might reasonably be accepted as the closing chapter in the history of any race.—William Maxwell, in the Nineteenth Century and After (London), May, 1913.SBBS 156.2

Eastern Question, Scripture Prophecy and Moslem Tradition.—And highly is it worth our remark that the following prediction seems very near its completion also (Daniel 11:45); that the same Turk after he has gone forth with great fury to destroy and utterly to make away many, shall plant the tabernacle of his palace (his royal tent and pavilion in war, as I interpret those words) between the seas, in the glorious holy mountain; Mount Sion, or Mount Moriah, or Mount Calvary; all in Jerusalem, and all answering those descriptions. Yet shall he come to his end, and none shall help him. Which is so distinct and illustrious a prophetic character as cannot easily but be taken notice of when it comes to pass.—“Essay on the Revelation,” Wm. Whiston, M. A., on Daniel 11:45, p. 319. London, 1744.SBBS 156.3

In Surah 1. 40 [of the Koran], one of the signs of the approach of the last day will be: “The crier [to prayer] shall cry from a near place” (that is, a place from which all men shall hear). Husain says this “near place” is the temple at Jerusalem.—“Dictionary of Islam,” Thomas Patrick Hughes, art. “Jerusalem.” London: W. H. Allen & Co., 1896.SBBS 156.4

It was at Jerusalem that Jesus ascended to heaven; and it will be there that he will again descend.... In the last days there will be a general flight to Jerusalem.—Jalalan, old commentator on the Koran; cited in “Dictionary of Islam,” T. P. Hughes, art. “Jerusalem.”SBBS 156.5

As to the excellence of the city. Why, is not this to be the place of marshaling on the day of judgment; where the gathering together and the appointment will take place? Verily Makkah [Mecca] and Al Madina have their superiority by reason of the Ka’abah and the Prophet,-the blessing of Allah be upon him and his family!-but, in truth, on the day of judgment both cities will come to Jerusalem, and the excellencies of them all will then be united.—Mukaddasi (A. D. 985); cited in “Palestine under the Moslems,” Le Strange, p. 85.*SBBS 156.6

The Turks themselves seem generally to be convinced that their final hour is approaching. “We are no longer Mussulmans-the Mussulman saber is broken-the Osmanlies will be driven out of Europe by the Giaours, and driven through Asia to the regions from which they first sprang. It is Kismet! We cannot resist destiny!” I heard words to this effect from many Turks, as well in Asia as in Europe.—“Kismet, or the Doom of Turkey,” Charles S. MacFarlane, p. 409. London, 1853.SBBS 157.1

Ancient prophecy and modern superstition alike point to the return of the Crescent into Asia as an event at hand, and to the doom of the Turks as a race that has corrupted Islam. A well-known prediction to this effect ... places the scene of the last struggle in northern Syria, at Horns, on the Orontes. Islam is then finally to retire from the north, and the Turkish rule to cease. Such prophecies often work their own fulfilment.—“The Future of Islam,” Wilfred Scawen Blunt, p. 95. London, 1882.SBBS 157.2

Eastern Question, Elements for a Time of Trouble.—When, with the fall of Ottoman sovereignty at Constantinople, the Turk is driven out of Europe, there will arise once more the eternal question of the possession of Asia Minor. That land is the corridor between Europe and Asia, along which have passed most of the European conquerors-the Russians alone excepted-who have invaded Asia, and most of the Asiatic conquerors who have invaded Europe.—From an article by J. B. Firth, “The Partition of Asia Minor,” in Fortnightly Review (monthly, London), May, 1915, p. 795.SBBS 157.3

The question of Asiatic Turkey is undoubtedly a far more difficult question than that of Constantinople.... The importance and value of Asiatic Turkey ... can scarcely be overexaggerated, for it occupies undoubtedly the most important strategical position in the world. It forms the nucleus and center of the Old World. It separates, and at the same time connects, Europe, Asia, and Africa, three continents which are inhabited by approximately nine tenths of the human race.... If the powers should not be able to agree, ... it would become necessary to divide Asiatic Turkey into zones of influence.... However, it seems very doubtful whether the partition of Asiatic Turkey would prove a final one. It is much to be feared that it would lead to a disaster perhaps as great as the present war.—J. Ellis Barker, in the Nineteenth Century and After (London), June, 1916.*SBBS 157.4

Eastern Question, the Agreement Signed by the Powers, Concerning the Independence of the Ottoman Empire.—SBBS 157.5

CONVENTIONSBBS 157.6

Concluded between the courts of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia on the one part, and the Sublime Ottoman Porte on the other, for the pacification of the Levant, signed at London, July 15, 1840.SBBS 157.7

In the name of the most merciful God, His Highness the Sultan having addressed himself to their Majesties the Queen of the UnitedSBBS 157.8

Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of all the Russias, to ask their support and assistance in the difficulties in which he finds himself placed by reason of the hostile proceedings of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt,-difficulties which threaten with danger the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, and the independence of the Sultan’s throne,-their said Majesties, moved by the sincere desire of maintaining the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire as a security for the peace of Europe; faithful to the engagement which they contracted by the collective note presented to the Porte by their representatives at Constantinople, on the 27th of July, 1839; and desirous, moreover, to prevent the effusion of blood which would be occasioned by a continuance of the hostilities which have recently broken out in Syria between the authority of the Pasha of Egypt and the subjects of the Sultan; their said Majesties and his Highness the Sultan have resolved, for the aforesaid purpose, to conclude together a Convention, and they have therefore named as their plenipotentiaries....SBBS 158.1

Article I.-His Highness the Sultan having come to an agreement with their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of all the Russias, as to the condition of the agreement which it is the intention of his Highness to grant to Mehemet Ali, conditions which are specified in the separate act hereunto annexed; their Majesties engaged to act in perfect accord, and to unite their efforts in order to determine Mehemet Ali to conform to that arrangement; each of the high contracting parties reserving to itself to co-operate for that purpose, according to the means of action which each may have at its disposal.SBBS 158.2

Art. II.-If the Pasha of Egypt should refuse to accept the above-mentioned arrangement, which will be communicated to him by the Sultan, with the concurrence of their aforesaid Majesties; their Majesties engage to take, at the request of the Sultan, measures concerted and settled between them, in order to carry that arrangement into effect. In the meanwhile, the Sultan having requested the said allies to unite with him in order to assist him to cut off the communication by sea between Egypt and Syria, and to prevent the transport of troops, horses, arms, and warlike stores of all kinds from the one province to the other; their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, engage to give immediately to that effect, the necessary orders to their naval commanders in the Mediterranean. Their said Majesties further engage that the naval commanders of their squadrons shall, according to the means at their command, afford, in the name of the alliance, all the support and assistance in their power to those subjects of the Sultan who may manifest their fidelity and allegiance to their sovereign.SBBS 158.3

Art. III.-If Mehemet Ali, after having refused to submit to the conditions of the arrangement above mentioned, should direct his land or sea forces against Constantinople, the high contracting parties, upon the express demand of the Sultan, addressed to their representatives at Constantinople, agree, in such case, to comply with the request of that sovereign, and to provide for the defense of his throne by means of a co-operation agreed upon by mutual consent, for the purpose of placing the two straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles, as well as the capital of the Ottoman Empire, in security against all aggression.SBBS 158.4

It is further agreed, that the forces which, in virtue of such concert, may be sent as aforesaid, shall there remain so employed as long as their presence shall be required by the Sultan; and when His Highness shall deem their presence no longer necessary, the said forces shall simultaneously withdraw, and shall return to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean respectively.SBBS 158.5

Art. IV.-It is, however, expressly understood, that the co-operation mentioned in the preceding article, and destined to place the straits of the Dardanelles and of the Bosporus, and the Ottoman capital, under the temporary safeguard of the high contracting parties against all aggression of Mehemet Ali, shall be considered only as a measure of exception adopted at the express demand of the Sultan, and solely for his defense in the single case above mentioned; but it is agreed, that such measures shall not derogate in any degree from the ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire, in virtue of which it has at all times been prohibited for ships of war of foreign powers to enter the straits of the Dardanelles and of the Bosporus.SBBS 159.1

Art. V.-SBBS 159.2

Done at London, the fifteenth of July, in the year of our Lord, 1840.SBBS 159.3

(L. S.)	Palmerston	(England)
(L. S.)	Neumann	(Austria)
(L. S.)	Bulow	(Prussia)
(L. S.)	Brunnow	(Russia)
(L. S.)	Chekib	(Turkey)

-“Parliamentary Papers,” Session 1841, “On the Levant,” Vol. XXIX, part 2, pp. 691-693.SBBS 159.4

Eastern Question, Official Correspondence of August, 1840.—On the 11th instant Rifat Bey, bearer of the demands of the Sublime Porte, reached Alexandria. The general object of his mission soon began to be known in the city, and as the French and Russian consuls-general had within a few days officially mentioned the merchants and residents of their respective nations, I felt that the time was now arrived to follow that example. I therefore addressed to Mr. Consul Larking the inclosed dispatch of the 11th instant, which produced the three subsequent letters of the 12th, 14th, and 15th of August, all of which I have the honor to submit to your perusal.—Extract of Letter from Colonel Hodges to Viscount Palmerston, dated Alexandria, Egypt, Aug. 17, 1840, and received September 9; in Parliamentary Papers, Vol. XXIX, part 2, p. 143.SBBS 159.5

Sir: The resolutions which have been taken by four of the great European powers for the pacification of the East, the arrival this morning of a special envoy from the Sublime Porte, and the inflexible demeanor assumed by Mehemet Ali, have inspired some doubt as to the continuance of friendly relations with that Pasha.—Inclosure 1 in above Letter No. 116, Colonel Hodges to Mr. Consul Larking, dated Alexandria, Aug. 11, 1840.SBBS 159.6

This day, Sunday, at 2 o’clock, Turkish time, His Excellency Rifat Bey proceeded to Mehemet Ali, at his express invitation, accompanied by the individuals attached to his person, and the result of the interview which took place between them, is contained in the following lines.—Inclosure 3 in Letter No. 117, report of interview between Rifat Bey and Mehemet Ali.SBBS 159.7

My Lord: I have the honor to inclose for the information of your Lordship, the minute of an interview which took place this morning between Mehemet Ali and His Excellency Rifat Bey, the special envoy from the Sublime Porte, who was accompanied by the consuls-general of the four powers parties to the Convention of the 15th July.—LetterSBBS 159.8

No. 130, Colonel Hodges to Viscount Palmerston, dated Alexandria, Aug. 26, 1840, received September 9.SBBS 160.1

Minute of an interview of the 26th of August, between Mehemet Ali and Rifat Bey, accompanied by the consuls-general of the four powers, on the expiration of the first term of ten days.—Inclosure in Letter No. 130.SBBS 160.2

My Lord: Yesterday morning His Excellency Rifat Bey, together with his consuls-general of the four powers, parties to the Convention of the 15th of July, waited on Mehemet Ali in order to receive his final reply to the demands of the Sublime Porte. The Pasha being confined to his room by a painful indisposition, gave his official answer through the medium of his minister Sami Bey.SBBS 160.3

The details of our interview are contained in the minute I have the honor to inclose, and of which the original was yesterday forwarded to His Excellency Viscount Ponsonby, at Constantinople. The hasty departure of His Excellency Rifat Bey, and the consequent want of his signature, prevent my forwarding to your Lordship a duplicate instead of a copy.—Letter No. 190, Colonel Hodges to Viscount Palmerston, dated Alexandria, September 6, 1840, received October 6.SBBS 160.4

Eastern Question.—See Greece, 191-194.SBBS 160.5

Edict of Milan, a. d. 313.—As we long since perceived that religious liberty should not be denied, but that it should be granted to the opinion and wishes of each one to perform divine duties according to his own determination, we had given orders that each one, and the Christians among the rest, have the liberty to observe the religion of his choice and his peculiar mode of worship. And as there plainly appeared to be many and different sects added in that edict, ^{8The edict here mentioned is lost, and the reference is, therefore, subject to some obscurity. The Latin original, however, of this one is preserved by Lactantius, in his book “De Mortibus Persecutorum,” beginning at the words, “Wherefore, as I, Constantine.” Valesius here, as well as in the other edicts, has no reference to Lactantius. The Greek translation is in the main so faithful as to transfer the Latinity; the text, however, still preserved in Lac-tantius, differs in some places from that which Eusebius seems to have had.—The Translator, Rev. C. F. Cruse, D. D.} in which this privilege was granted them, some of them, perhaps, after a little while, on this account shrunk from this kind of attention and observance. Wherefore, as I, Constantine Augustus, and I, Licinius Augustus, came under favorable auspices to Milan, and took under consideration all affairs that pertained to the public benefit and welfare, these things among the rest appeared to us to be most advantageous and profitable to all.SBBS 160.6

We have resolved among the first things to ordain those matters by which reverence and worship to the Deity might be exhibited; that is, how we may grant likewise to the Christians, and to all, the free choice to follow that mode of worship which they may wish, that whatsoever divinity and celestial power may exist may be propitious to us and to all that live under our government. Therefore, we have decreed the following ordinance, as our will, with a salutary and most correct intention, that no freedom at all shall be refused to Christians, to follow or to keep their observances or worship; but that to each one power be granted to devote his mind to that worship which he may think adapted to himself, that the Deity may in all things exhibit to us his accustomed favor and kindness. It was just and consistent that we should write that this was our pleasure, that all exceptions respecting the Christians being completely removed, which were contained in the former epistle that we sent to your fidelity, and whatever measures were wholly sinister and foreign to our mildness, that these should be altogether annulled; and now that each one of the Christians may freely and without molestation, pursue and follow that course of worship which he has proposed to himself: which, indeed, we have resolved to communicate most fully to your care and diligence, that you may know we have granted liberty and full freedom to the Christians, to observe their own mode of worship; which as your fidelity understands absolutely granted to them by us, the privilege is also granted to others to pursue that worship and religion they wish, which it is obvious is consistent with the peace and tranquillity of our times; that each may have the privilege to select and to worship whatsoever divinity he pleases. But this has been done by us, that we might not appear in any manner to detract anything from any manner of religion or any mode of worship.SBBS 160.7

And this we further decree, with respect to the Christians, that the places in which they were formerly accustomed to assemble, concerning which we also formerly wrote to your fidelity, in a different form, that if any persons have purchased these, either from our treasury or from any other one, these shall restore them to the Christians, without money and without demanding any price, without any superadded value, or augmentation, without delay or hesitancy. And if any have happened to receive these places as presents, that they shall restore them as soon as possible to the Christians, so that if either those that purchased or those that received them as presents, have anything to request of our munificence, they may go to the provincial governor, as the judge, that provision may also be made for them by our clemency; all which, it will be necessary to be delivered up to the body of Christians, by your care, without any delay.SBBS 161.1

And since the Christians themselves are known to have had not only those places where they were accustomed to meet, but other places also, belonging not to individuals among them, but to the right of the whole body of Christians, you will also command all these, by virtue of the law before mentioned, without any hesitancy, to be restored to these same Christians, that is, to their body, and to each conventricle respectively; the aforesaid consideration, to wit, being observed; namely, that they who as we have said restore them without valuation and price, may expect their inremnity from our munificence and liberality.SBBS 161.2

In all which it will be incumbent on you to manifest your exertions, as much as possible, to the aforesaid body of Christians, that our orders may be most speedily accomplished, that likewise in this provision may be made by our clemency, for the preservation of the common and public tranquillity. For by these means, as beforesaid, the divine favor with regard to us, which we have already experienced in many affairs, will continue firm and permanent at all times. But that the purpose of this our ordinance and liberality may be extended to the knowledge of all, it is expected that these things written by us should be proposed and published to the knowledge of all, that this act of our liberality and kindness may remain unknown to none.—Edict of Constantine (and Licinius?), A. D. 313; cited in “An Ecclesiastical History,” Eusebius, book 10, chap. 5 (Vol. II, pp. 430-433). London: Samuel Bagster & Sons, 1847. (See also “The Library of Original Sources,” Vol. IV, pp. 19, 20.)SBBS 161.3

Edict of Nantes.—See Increase of Knowledge, 221.SBBS 161.4

Exarchate of Ravenna.—See Temporal Power of the Pope.SBBS 161.5

Extreme Unction, Defined.—Extreme unction is a sacrament of the new law instituted by Christ to give spiritual aid and comfort and perfect spiritual health, including, if need be, the remission of sins, and also, conditionally, to restore bodily health to Christians who are seriously ill; it consists essentially in the unction by a priest of the body of the sick person, accompanied by a suitable form of words.... The name “Extreme Unction” did not become technical in the West till towards the end of the twelfth century, and has never become current in the East.—The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, art. “Extreme Unction,” p. 716. New York: Robert Appleton Company.SBBS 161.6

Extreme Unction, Canons on.—Canon I. If any one saith that extreme unction is not truly and properly a sacrament, instituted by Christ our Lord, and promulgated by the blessed apostle James; but is only a rite received from the Fathers, or a human figment; let him be anathema.SBBS 162.1

Canon IV. If any one saith that the presbyters of the church, whom blessed James exhorts to be brought to anoint the sick, are not the priests who have been ordained by a bishop, but the elders in each community, and that for this cause a priest alone is not the proper minister of extreme unction; let him be anathema.—“Dogmatic Canons and Decrees,” pp. 121, 122. New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1912.SBBS 162.2

Ezra, Date of Commission of.—See Artaxerxes, 42; Seventy Weeks, 518-520.SBBS 162.3