Who Received Which Spirit?

Despite the major aforementioned trend in Christianity set by Irenaeus and Cyprian, of experiencing God’s voice through the church, certain Christians claimed to have had intimate experiences with God through his Spirit. ^{33This narrative is based on Jaroslav Pelikan, The Growth of Medieval Theology, The Christian Tradition—A History of Development of Doctrine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 3:303-307.} Although Thomas Aquinas (c.1225-1274) would stress the role of the rituals (sacraments) in the Christian experience of the divine and would place the beatific vision of all believers to the end of times, when God would become all in all, some were more prone to experience the presence of God intimately. Augustine’s Confessions may have played a major role in the articulation of this desire, who in turn was influenced by Christian forms of asceticism. Similar to all who claim to have had the spirit of God was an intense passion to be with God and eliminate sinful desires. A theology of experience informed by Matthew 5:8, “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God,” applied biblical characteristics of a prophet to Christians outside the hierarchy of the church. Similar to Moses, the prophet par excellence, they would see God and be led by his Spirit.GOP 215.2

This individualistic experience with the divine, instead of a mediated one, would foment groups that sought the presence of God outside the control of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Movements such as the Franciscans, Dominicans, and later the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) had founders who claimed to have had visions from God and a desire to reform the church through a more personal connection with the Spirit. Because of their main doctrinal agreement with the Western church, they were slowly assimilated and used by the Papacy for less-than-noble goals, such as the persecution of those who disagreed with them. However, not all who were open to the influence of the divine spirit were in conformity with the doctrines of the church. This quest for a direct experience with God was indirectly a move away from depending on the bishops to obtain divine favor. This desire for spiritual renewal led individuals and groups to point out the sins of the hierarchical structure of Christianity and spark the Reformation with its emphasis on personal faith in God. ^{34A side note that requires further elaboration in this narrative (not mentioned by Pelikan) is the Jewish postexilic mystic roots of these Christian movements of spiritual renewal. See Gershom Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (New York: Schocken Books, 1995), also Scholem, The Messianic Idea in Judaism and Other Essays on Jewish Spirituality (New York: Schocken Books, 1995). Scholem provides an impressive analysis of how this idea of direct contact with God shaped Second Temple Judaism and Christianity. The major characteristic of this religious trend noted by Scholem is eschatology, or the expectation of the soon coming of the Messiah (kingdom of God) and the end of evil. This hope of the end fostered a sentiment of indifference with the status quo, thus creating reform movements. The similarities in practices and beliefs between Qumran, early Christian asceticism, and Adventism are not a coincidence. They were eschatological movements with a strong emphasis on purity (rituals) and the belief of the indwelling of the divine spirit in its practitioners.} GOP 216.1

Influenced by the sociology of religion and anthropology methodologies, studies on charismatic figures in Christianity have used the word “mystic” to describe the experience of those who saw God and received a message from the divine spirit. This is similar to a definition of the spiritual gift of prophecy previously delineated. Based on this definition, popular articles on Christian mysticism, such as one found in Wikipedia, ^{35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_mysticism (accessed Aug. 30, 2015).} provide an intriguing list of “mystics.” Ellen White and A. W. Tozer are considered Christian mystics in the modern era; Ignatius of Loyola, Teresa of Avila, and George Fox as premodern examples; and Julian of Norwich and Hildegard of Bingen as Middle Age cases of intimate experience with the Spirit of God. The list is comprehensive and allows for a continual presence of the gift of prophecy in history, as A. G. Daniells argued. However, the generality of this list is obvious, because under the definition of mysticism—those who saw God—basically any Christian who claims to have experienced a spiritual feeling through prayer, meditation, vision, or dreams can be characterized as a mystic or, further, as a prophet. This is also the problem with A. G. Daniells’ study. Although some biblical prophets are clearly mystics, not all mystical experiences are necessarily prophetic. ^{36A simple distinction exists based on the Hebrew words to describe a visionary (roeh, chozeh) and a proclaimer of divine words (nabi), captured well in Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 248, 249. Although a prophet such as Daniel may well have received visions of heavenly beings, David may not have had such experiences, and yet he still proclaimed divine messages through psalms.} However, one concept can be transferred to the other and create difficulty in identifying a prophet.GOP 216.2

Aside from the biblical tension of the false versus the true prophet, in a postmodern evaluation of the gift of prophecy (in the study of religion) the more general category of experiencing supernatural phenomena cannot be ignored. ^{37The denial of supernatural manifestations led Ronald Numbers to evaluate Ellen G. White’s experiences (visions and dreams), not as prophetic, but as a social phenomenon only. Ronald L. Numbers, Prophetess of Health: A Study of Ellen G. White (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008), xxxiii. See response in Leonard Brand and Don S. McMahon, The Prophet and Her Critics: A Striking New Analysis Refutes the Charges That Ellen G. White “Borrowed” the Health Message (Nampa, Idaho: Pacific Press®, 2005).} The difficulty or tension is real and crucial for understanding the manifestation of spiritual gifts, including that of prophecy. We must cultivate an attitude of openness and suspicion: openness because the Scriptures and daily experience tell us that spiritual manifestations are real but suspicion because the Scriptures and daily experience also reveal the ambivalent characteristics in those who claim to have a divine spirit. We should always ask, Who received which spirit?GOP 217.1

The parameter of evaluation is a hermeneutical choice, and ours is conformity to what we deem a correct reading of the Scriptures (both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament). Tests such as (a) conformity to previous divine revelation (Deut. 13:1-5; Isa. 8:20; 1 Cor. 14:28-15:8), (b) fulfilled predictions (Deut. 18:21, 22; Jer. 28:9), (c) righteous behavior (Matt. 7:15-20), and (d) confessing Jesus as the messianic Son of God who became flesh (1 John 4:1-6) are clearly laid out in the Scriptures. Although visions and dreams can certainly be part of the prophetic experience, they are not always the case, and thus not a mandatory characteristic of this gift. Even the tests in Scripture are sometimes not clear. ^{38Rice also concurs that isolating characteristics laid out in the Scriptures are not absolute proof that someone is a prophet (Rice, 619, 630).} For example, what is conformity to previous divine revelation? Paul and his understanding of circumcision is a case in which biblical law seems to be abrogated by new revelation. For was not circumcision clearly stated in the Torah and the Prophets that it was a perpetual sign between God and Israel? What about the test of fulfilled prediction? Did not Jonah foretell that Nineveh would be destroyed in 40 days, and it wasn’t? ^{39A classical Adventist response to this is the differentiation between classical and apocalyptic prophecy, or conditional and nonconditional predictions. Rice uses this argument to affirm that this test (fulfilled predictions) is not a fixed one in determining the legitimacy of a divine prophet (630)} The test of righteous behavior can also be a tricky one. We surely have good people who are not prophets (Mother Teresa) and prophets who did not behave well (e.g., David). The biblical test for identifying Jesus as the incarnate Christ seems to be a more reliable test, but even this can be a complex issue. ^{40What does it mean to declare Jesus as the incarnated Messiah? Roman Catholic dogma also confesses that Jesus is God incarnated, but their view of God, incarnation, and its benefits to humanity (soteriology) stand in stark contrast to ours (Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 254). For more on the divide between the Roman Catholic doctrine of God and Adventist understanding, see Fernando Luis Canale, “Doctrine of God,” in Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology, 105-139.}GOP 217.2

All this serves as a warning against human overconfidence that applies both to those who claim to be prophets and those observing it. As Jeremiah recognized, the heart of man is deceitful (Jer. 17:9, also Rom. 7:14, 15). Therefore, we need the mind of Christ given by His Spirit to identify truth from error (1 Cor. 2:10-16). Considering this, in our concluding section we adopt the broad definition of a prophet based on the New Testament and Apostolic Fathers, spokespersons of God who have been called directly by God. They may or may not have received a vision/dream or an ecstatic experience like Ezekiel, John, and Ellen White. When sufficient information is not available regarding a given subject, we should not hastily judge such persons as false or true prophets, but leave the possibilities open. When sufficient information is given about people who claim to have had a special encounter with the spiritual, we should evaluate their lives and teachings based on the Scriptures. Based on conformity to the Bible as the norm to evaluate new prophets, we conclude our narrative of the spiritual gift of prophecy in the Middle Ages.GOP 217.3