IV. Extra-Biblical Influences on the Antichrist Concept
After having given a short outline of the contents of the more important pseudepigrapha, let us now trace their influence upon certain specific doctrines, as, for example, the Antichrist and chiliasm.PFF1 293.5
The definite influence of non-Biblical apocalyptic literature on the church’s interpretation of the genuine New Testament Apocalypse, or book of Revelation, is difficult to grasp in this modern age, in which observation and reason have in large degree supplanted revelation and the faith, sometimes blended with credulity, of earlier times.PFF1 293.6
1. APOCRYPHAL WRITINGS DISTORT BIBLICAL FIGURES
Furthermore, it is well-nigh impossible for us today to evaluate correctly the enormous influence that the genuine Biblical figures of the Apocalypse—for instance the four horsemen, the beast, the scarlet woman, and the dread “Antichrist”—exercised upon the thinking of past ages. This was true not only of the thinking of the masses but especially with those who had to make fundamental decisions in directing the affairs of men. This influence seems to have been ever present, operating at least subconsciously if not openly. And although scholars in our time, after painstaking research into the evidence of the centuries as to the authenticity of these non-Biblical books, do not attach much value to them, because they lack certain elements which are required of canonical writings, we should nevertheless bear in mind that they are an expression of current thought in that older age, and that they influenced the popular thinking of their times probably almost as much as that of the acknowledged and approved writings. Moreover, works that have since received the odious label of “heretical” were often generally accepted and esteemed at the time. For that reason we find that many of the church fathers, recognized as orthodox by the early church, supported their views by citing books which have since been rejected, or at least discredited.PFF1 294.1
Justin Martyr, for instance, quotes and esteems the book of Enoch, and Tertullian defends it. In this work it is alleged that God has given over the care of mankind to the angels. But the angels, transgressing His command, are said to have consorted with mankind, and thus brought into being the offspring which are called demons. PFF1 294.2
Clement of Alexandria accepts and cites the Old Testament Apocrypha freely, and considers the miracles related in the book of Tobit as authentic. Similar attitudes could be cited for many of the other church fathers. This shows that we should recognize the large influence that extra-Biblical sacred and semi-sacred literature, which existed at the time, exerted in molding the religious opinion of the age. And it emphasizes the point that we should not make the mistake of considering our present-day Bible as the sole basis of their religious ideas. Such a notion would be as fallacious as the one, long held in Christian circles, that Israel and its history was the only center around which life revolved in ancient times; whereas Israel was just one cog, though by no means unimportant, in the great wheel of ancient life.PFF1 295.1
2. ANTICHRIST CONCEIVED OF AS INCARNATION OF SATAN
The one figure standing out more prominently in those early times than all others in the same category, was that of Antichrist. In the writings of the acknowledged church fathers, as well as in the so-called pseudepigraphal and apocryphal writings, the figure of Antichrist plays a major role. We find it clothed in different garbs and under various disguises. Irenaeus speaks of him in this way:PFF1 295.2
“He (Antichrist) being endued with all the power of the devil, shall come ... as an apostate, iniquitous and murderous; as a robber, concentrating in himself [all] satanic apostasy, and setting aside idols, to persuade (men) that he himself is God, raising up himself as the only idol.” PFF1 295.3
“But when this Antichrist shall have devasted all things in this world, he will ... sit in the temple at Jerusalem.” PFF1 295.4
Antichrist is not the devil, but is conceived to be more or less an incarnation of the devil.PFF1 295.5
Chrysostom, through whole the Eastern Church was markedly influenced, states in his Homily 3, on 2 Thessalonians 2: “But who is he? Is it then Satan? By no means, but some man possessed of all his energy.” And we find the same ideas recurring again and again as late as in Haymo of Halberstadt (d. 9th century). The same idea was also expressed by John of Damascus. Hippolytus makes him a Jew from the tribe of Dan, a tyrant and king, “that son of the devil,” who would be a counterfeit or counterpart of Christ. PFF1 295.6
For him, the Roman Empire is not the kingdom of Antichrist. Moreover, the Antichrist will overcome the kings of Egypt, Libya, and Ethiopia, and his next exploit will be the destruction of Tyre and Berytus (Beirut). PFF1 296.1
3. ANTICHRIST DESCRIBED AS DEFORMED MONSTER
In Pseudo Hippolytus we read:PFF1 296.2
“Since the Saviour of the world, with the purpose of saving the race of men, was born of the immaculate and virgin Mary .... in the same manner also will the accuser come forth from an impure woman upon the earth, but shall be born of a virgin spuriously.” PFF1 296.3
Antichrist is frequently connected with the Dragon Monster. And we find descriptions of him which bear all the marks of a fantasy, delighting in the description of the horrible and terrible. In the Revelation o f Ezra edited by Tischendorf—a work which for a time was considered to be a part of Second Esdras (or fourth book of Ezra) of the Apocrypha, though this particular work is an imitation of the latter—this description is given:PFF1 296.4
“The form of his countenance is like that of a wild beast; his right eye like the star that rises in the morning, and the other without motion; his mouth one cubit; his teeth span long; his fingers like scythes; the track of his feet of two spans; and in his face an inscription, Antichrist.” PFF1 296.5
This strange idea that the Antichrist was a horribly deformed monster prevailed for many centuries, and found highly developed expression in the art of the Middle Ages. In the Beatus Illustrations of the Apocalypse we meet him in all his fearful realism.PFF1 296.6
The idea that the Antichrist would come from the tribe of Dan found wide acceptance among the early church fathers. We find it in Hippolytus, and more explicitly in Irenaeus, who even attempts to give some support for it from the fact that the tribe of Dan is not mentioned in the Apocalypse. This notion is also found later in the writings of Ambrose, in Jacob of Edessa, and as late as in Bede’s Sibyl, as well as in the writings of Primasius and Ambrosius Autpertus. PFF1 297.1
Irenaeus does not explain why he assumes the coming of Antichrist from Dan. Scrutinizing the ancient Jewish traditions, we find that the old Targumim declare that from Dan darkness will spread over the world. The North was considered the seat of darkness and evil. And because the tribe of Dan was situated in the North, he was predestined to become the source of Antichrist. Furthermore, Dan was the first to accept idolatry and succumb to the forces of evil. Moreover, the tribal insigne actually bore the sign of a serpent. This serpent was accepted as the sign of Antichrist. We read in Pseudo Ephraem (chapter 8) that at the time of Antichrist a horrible famine will spread through the earth, the severity of which will be increased, be it noted, because “et nemo potest venumdare vel emere di frumento caducitatis, nisi qui serpentinum signum in fronte aut in manu habuerit” (and none is able to sell or buy of the weakened grain who has not the sign of the serpent on his forehead or his hand).PFF1 297.2
4. LINKED To TEMPLE AND JEWS’ RETURN
The idea that Antichrist will appear in the temple of Jerusalem, and that therefore the temple must be rebuilt, found widest currency. Thus the statement appears in Hippolytus:PFF1 297.3
“The Saviour raised up and showed His holy flesh like a temple, and he [Antichrist) will raise a temple of stone in Jerusalem.” PFF1 298.1
Closely connected therewith was the idea of the return of the Jews, especially of the ten tribes, to Jerusalem. In later periods we find the same idea. In the Greek Apocalypse of Daniel we read, “And the Jews he [Antichrist] shall exalt, and dwell in the Temple that had been razed to the ground.” And Honorius of Autun states, “Antichrist shall rebuild the old Jerusalem, in which he shall order himself to be worshipped as God.” PFF1 298.2
5. ELABORATIONS FROM PERSIAN AND JEWISH SOURCES
Such notions, and equally fanciful ideas about Antichrist, were commonly accepted for many centuries, and are even yet held, in part, by some groups. It is evident that many features of such a picture of Antichrist cannot possibly be based on the references to Antichrist found in the Bible. The Biblical passages nowhere permit such a detailed description of this figure. And to attribute these elaborations on Antichrist to the fancies of one expositor whom all the others copied, would concede too large a margin to the credulity of the learned men of those ages.PFF1 298.3
What, then, is the origin of these extraneous ideas about Antichrist? From what do they stem? The consistency with which they appear, would surely indicate that some extra-Biblical concept of Antichrist, in which these different traits appear, was very well known and accepted during the early age of the church. Later that outside source was no longer remembered, and the greatly elaborated picture of Antichrist came to be accepted as the genuine product.PFF1 298.4
Is there such an outside source to be found? The actual name Antichrist occurs for the first time in Christian literature. But the ideas associated with this name—particularly the concept of a God-opposing tyrant and ruler of the last times assuredly reach back to the flourishing period of Jewish apocalyptic literature. That is the conclusion drawn, for example, in the article on Antichrist in Hastings’ Encyclopaedia o f Religion and Ethics.PFF1 298.5
This fanciful concept seems to have had its origin in the Persian eschatology, where the battle between Ahura Mazda, the god of light, and Angra Mainyu, the god of darkness, plays a predominant role. And from there it found its way into the Jewish apocalyptic literature, where the opposition between God and the devil, who is introduced under the various names of Behar, Satanas, Diabolus, Pneuma-aerion, is the chief of the leading ideas contained in the Jewish element of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, which undoubtedly belongs to the Maccabaean period. In this book Behar already appears as the enemy of God and His people in the last times. It is said of the Messiah (T. Leviticus 18:12): “And Behar will be bound by Him, and He will give His children power to trample on the evil spirits.” Beliar, who originally was probably nothing else than the incarnate devil, was soon expanded, under the influence of certain historical conditions, to be the opposer of God in the last times.PFF1 299.1
Beliar, it was contended, will come from Sebaste. He will stop the sea, the great fiery sun, and the brilliantly shining moon. He will raise the dead, and do many signs and wonders before man. But there is no fulfillment in him, only blinding deception. He will lead many astray, even faithful Hebrews and others who are without the law and have not received the Word of God. But when the judgments of the great God shall approach, and the fiery power descend upon the earth, then God will destroy by fire Behar and all those who have relied upon him. This strange picture of Behar is so much like that of Antichrist that a number of scholars have tried to place that part of the Sibyl as being written after the time of Christ. But another Sibyl, which is undoubtedly of Jewish origin, describes the workings of Behar in the following way:PFF1 299.2
“Near is the ruin when impostors come Instead of prophets speaking on the earth. And Beliar shall come and many signs Perform for men. And then of holy men, Elect and faithful, there shall be confusion, And pillaging of them and of the Hebrews.” PFF1 300.1
The highly esteemed Sibyls of ancient Greece and Rome must have had a far-reaching influence in formulating popular opinion, because both Jews and Christians adopted them as an effective method of propagating their faith, and especially their eschatological hopes, as we have seen.PFF1 300.2
In book 5 of the Sibyllines (2nd century A.D.) the expectation of the return of Nero finds expression. In the first part Nero is still the historical personage, but in the second part he is invested with superhuman traits. In book 8 likewise (3rd century) Nero redivivus appears, also the reign of a woman, apparently regarded as the incarnation of evil.PFF1 300.3
Let us note the development of the figure of Antichrist in the thought of the first centuries. Although Second 2 Thessalonians 2 in no way depicts Antichrist as a God-opposing tyrant, but rather as a subtle power and a seductive agency which works in secret, attempting to take the place of God, the older idea remained in prominence in the older Christian expectation. Not long after the death of Nero the rumor arose that he was not dead but was still alive and would reappear. PFF1 300.4
Deceivers made use of that popular expectation and employed the mask of this mythical Nero. This heathen belief was first adopted by the Jewish apocalyptic writers, and is mentioned in the fourth and fifth Sibyls. Hence the term Nero redivivus (revived) with which Victorinus of Pettau is also acquainted. When time passed, and the return of Nero became more and more improbable, his figure came to have the qualities of a ghostlike monster. And in Commodian’s Carmen apologeticum, early in the fourth century, the two figures of Antichrist and Nero redivivus are one. We likewise find in the Sibyls a vivid description of the return of the Jews from their captivity beyond the Persian stream. And this was coupled with the idea of the Antichrist of the last days, which is found in the important passage of Commodian.PFF1 300.5
“The Jews, recapitulating Scriptures from him [Nero], exclaim at the same time to the Highest that they have been deceived.” PFF1 301.1
Later traditions even speak of two Messiahs—one, the Messiah ben Josef, who will lead the ten tribes out of captivity back to Jerusalem and will be slain by Antichrist; and the other, the Messiah ben David, who will be the right Messiah, and will be triumphant. These ideas, and others, are contained in the Jewish History o f Daniel, which is preserved in the Persian. The later Syriac Apocalypse o f Ezra came to the West through the works of Pseudo-Methodius, which are extant in no fewer than three Greek recensions, a Latin translation, and various Greek and Latin redactions. They made their profound impressions in those early days, and contributed to the many extraordinary notions then current about Antichrist. One is probably justified in saying that they made a much deeper impression in the West than in the East, and have influenced many a decision of far-reaching importance. It is a weird story, but one that must be borne in mind in order to understand the attitudes and ideas of the early centuries.PFF1 301.2