I. Shifting Emphasis of the Three Schools Concerning the Soul

1. HISTORIC ALIGNMENTS IN ANTE-NICENE PERIOD

Though we have touched upon them before, following the time of TERTULLIAN (d. c. 240)—and the steady growth of the second school in the theological trilemma that we have been tracing—we find that they gained the support of HIPPOLYTUS, bishop of Portus Romanus (d. c. 236) and friend of Origen, and CYPRIAN, bishop of Carthage (d. c. 258) and admirer and successor of Tertullian, as they trod in Tertullian’s fiery footsteps. That is, they held to the universal Innate Immortality of all souls, together with the dreadful corollary of the Eternal Torment of the wicked. (And both Hippolytus and Cyprian lived prior to the notable Council of Nicea in 325.)CFF1 1054.1

In the third school—that of the rival Universal Restorationism—are found GREGORY THAUMATURGUS of Neocaesarea (d. c. 270), PAMPHILUS of Caesarea (d. 309), along with THEOGNOSTUS (d. c. 282) and PIERIUS, Origen’s successors in the school at Alexandria. These men close the line of Ante-Nicene Fathers of this school. And these earlier witnesses, it is to be remembered, were predominantly Greek.CFF1 1054.2

Meanwhile, Conditionalist NOVATIAN of Nicomedia (d. c. 258), and ARNOBIUS of Sicca (d. c. 330), similarly close the ante-Nicene line of the Conditionalist or first school of witnesses. These men have already been presented quite fully.CFF1 1054.3

2. POST-NICENE SHIFTING OF GREATEST IMPORT

Then came the epochal general Council of Nicea in 325, with its momentous decisions concerning the Godhead. And about this time appeared the bold Conditionalist witness of LACTANTIUS of Nicomedia, noted in the preceding chapter. Following him comes the distinct alteration in emphasis. By now the church is predominantly Latin, and Conditionalism is rapidly passing into eclipse. The learned ATHANASIUS of Alexandria (d. 373), about to be covered, gives but feeble voice to the redemptive positions stressed in Conditionalism. And his is the last prominent voice before the transition. This gives a bit of setting, and reveals the changing times.CFF1 1054.4

Meanwhile, some seven ecclesiastics still support the Restorationist School in its last hopeless stand. But they were diminishing reverberations, as it were, merely reiterating what had been said again and again. At the same time, the rising tide of the Eternal-Torment school of Immortal-Soulism attracted four stanch adherents to the Tertullian position, climaxing with the redoubtable AUGUSTINE of Hippo in the fifth century. Such is the over-all picture. It is fraught with deep significance. The battle for domination was now on in dead earnest. Eternal-Tormentism was out to impose its view on all.CFF1 1055.1

After Universal Restorationist BASIL, bishop of Caesarea (d. 379), DIODORUS, bishop of Tarsus (d. c. 390), blind DIDYMUS (d. 398), of the Catechetical School of Alexandria, GREGORY, bishop of Nyssa (d. c. 395), and THEODORE, bishop of Mopsuestia (d. 428), had each spoken, the Restorationist line practically ceased—and remained silent for centuries, following suppression by condemnation of the second Council of Constantinople in 553.CFF1 1055.2

3. ULTIMATE ASCENDANCY OF ETERNAL-TORMENT SCHOOL

As already noted, in the now powerful and expanding Eternal-Torment school of post-Nicene times must be included AMBROSE, bishop of Milan (d. 397), CHRYSOSTOM, bishop of Constantinople (d. 407), JEROME of Bethlehem (d. 420), of Vulgate translation fame, with the renowned AUGUSTINE, bishop of Hippo (d. 430), coming at the climactic end of the line. His powerful voice constituted the ultimate. He furnished the imprimatur.CFF1 1055.3

These all opposed the Restorationist school of Origen as well as the Conditionalist, and thus advanced the never-ending-torment postulate of Tertullian. And now with the appearance of Augustine the ascendant position became established, and was henceforth dominant and oppressive. In this way Eternal-Tormentism came to be the inexorable dogma of the Catholic Church as it took its position as the controlling medieval ecclesiastical power, suppressing all opposing views.CFF1 1055.4

Picture 1: Athanasius of Alexandria:
Athenasius of Alexandria Gives but Feeble Voice to the Position of Conditionalism.
Page 1056CFF1 1056

So it was that Conditionalism and Restorationism were both, by the sixth century, virtually crushed and driven underground. The Eternal-Torment school of Tertullian-Augustine was at last practically unchallenged. And it continued in the ascendancy for centuries—consolidating its power and brooking no opposition. But before we turn to Athanasius, and the momentous hour of transition striking at that time, we must first note an impending movement of a different character that had arisen, that has a definite bearing on the stature and testimony of Athanasius.CFF1 1056.1